Higher Education and Human Flourishing: The Case of China

Logos Review · Issue 1 (Spring 2026) · Special Topic: Education

Yingquan Song

Abstract: Based on a preliminary review of the various challenges faced by Chinese universities in talent cultivation, this article proposes that universities should return to the core goal of fostering human flourishing. It first dives deep into  the concept of human flourishing and a look back at the university mission and liberal education philosophy of the British educator John Henry Newman, after which it poses the central question of the university and flourishing of individual: To what extent do we and our universities promote or limit the flourishing of the individual?

https://doi.org/10.64053/TPLV8210

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Higher Education and Human Flourishing[①]: The Case of China

“Education is of vital importance to people of all ages. So, what is the purpose of education? Before we can assess whether education systems are fulfilling their promise, we must ask a fundamental question: Should the goal of education be to promote the flourishing of human life or to meet the needs of ‘homo economicus’?”
—United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO, 2022 )

Introduction

Over the past two to three decades, Chinese higher education has experienced unprecedented growth. In 2024, the total number of students enrolled in various types of universities in China reached 48.46 million, with a gross enrollment rate in higher education of 60.8% ( Ministry of Education of China, 2025 ). Currently, one in every six university students worldwide is “made in China” ( Li, et al., 2023 ). However, the cultivation of talent in Chinese universities, including elite ones, has come under criticism and doubt. These can be roughly divided into three categories. The first is criticism laden with emotion. For example, Zhang Ming, a professor at Renmin University of China, has repeatedly stated in media interviews that “even Chinese football has more hopeful prospects than Chinese universities.” The second category consists of observations and questions from well-known figures. From “Qian Xuesen’s Question” and “Qian Liqun’s Worry” to the concept of “hollow-heart disease,” these voices seem to carry considerable authority and are rarely contested. The third category includes methodologically rigorous studies on the intellectual development of university students. For instance, a recent study published in a top academic journal revealed that after four years of university education, the critical thinking skills of Chinese university students, including those at elite universities, not only failed to improve but actually declined, while their academic abilities in the sciences stagnated ( Loyalka, et al., 2021 ).

The first type of criticism is often laughed off. The second type has prompted numerous explanations, clarifications, and even proposed solutions involving well-known scholars, academicians, and university administrators ( Qian Yingyi, 2018; Pan Jianwei, 2013; Shi Yigong, 2023; Lin Jianhua [②] , 2017 ). As for the third type of research, it has been widely disseminated by various media, seemingly serving as a “dagger” aimed at Chinese higher education. How should we understand such criticisms and doubts? This author believes that although these criticisms and doubts may appear “negative,” they reflect the love and expectations that everyone, including the critics, skeptics, and researchers, has for Chinese universities, and embody a scientific spirit of seeking truth from facts. Can we identify some internal consistency in these criticisms, doubts, and unpleasant research findings? Or, can we try to find some suitable conceptual frameworks with which to understand the problems of talent cultivation in Chinese higher education? In fact, the various challenges faced by Chinese universities in talent cultivation are also part of the challenges faced by higher education globally [③] , although the former are marked by unique historical, political, economic, and socio-cultural factors.

Over the past thirty years, human flourishing, an ancient philosophical and ethical concept, has garnered widespread attention in numerous fields, including psychology, political science, economics, law, health sciences, public policy, medicine, and even neuroscience ( Cebral-Loureda, et al., 2022; Alexander, 2019; Vander Weele, 2017; Seligman, 2012 ). A large number of studies, practices, and policy initiatives themed around human flourishing have emerged ( Cebral-Loureda, et al., 2022; Vander Weele & Johnson, 2025 ). World-renowned universities have established centers, institutes, or laboratories related to human flourishing. For example, Harvard University established a Human Flourishing Program in 2016 and has since published a large volume of high-level empirical research on the topic. In 2025, Baylor University launched the Institute for Global Human Flourishing [④]. The University of Pennsylvania established a Positive Psychology Center in 2000 and the Humanities and Human Flourishing project in 2014.

The revitalization of the concept of human flourishing [⑤] not only brings a new perspective on what it means to be human to scholars in different interdisciplinary fields, but also prompts us to reflect on the fundamental questions of the philosophy of education. For example, what is the nature of education? What is the purpose of education? What is good education? For some scholars, human flourishing is almost synonymous with the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle’s concept of Eudaimonia, “the highest good.” Therefore, in the field of philosophy of education, many European scholars have proposed that promoting human flourishing should be the purpose, “the fundamental purpose,” or “the core purpose” of education ( Kristjánsson, 2017; De Ruyter, et al., 2022; Materla, 2024; Curren et al., 2024 ). UNESCO has recently organized the publication of a series of special issues on “Education for Human Flourishing” ( UNESCO, 2022 ). The first issue of the Journal of Philosophy of Education in 2025 published a special section of five articles, elaborating on the view of human flourishing as the aim of education from different perspectives ( Olimpio & De Ruyter, 2025 ). In the field of higher education, scholars have also begun to discuss the possibility of linking human flourishing with the mission of the university. For example, Professor VanderWeele, the director of the Human Flourishing Program at Harvard, and his collaborators have proposed concepts of academic flourishing and student development, along with a measurement framework ( Vander Weele & Case, 2025 ). A Dutch philosopher of education has proposed human flourishing as the purpose of the university ( De Ruyter, 2025 ).

The idea of human flourishing as the aim of education largely stems from a reflection on human capital theory. For the past sixty to seventy years, human capital theory has been the default framework for viewing education, especially higher education: education as an investment in human capital is the most important source of national economic growth and individual income. In this framework, people are treated as tools and means rather than ends. This theory has never been without critics, and many scholars have critiqued it ( Wang Rong, 2020; Tan, 2014; Easterlin, 1974 ). For example, Professor Wang Rong of Peking University pointed out that traditional human capital theory does not consider the endogeneity of institutions, and proposed the concepts of distributive and productive human capital. In fact, both distributive and productive human capital still treat people as tools and capital to be invested in. Despite much criticism, there seems to be a lack of in-depth reflection on the purpose of education from the perspective of human flourishing.

In recent years, Chinese scholars have engaged in practices and research in positive psychology and the subjective well-being of university students. For example, Professor Peng Kaiping of Tsinghua University has vigorously promoted the practice of positive psychology or happiness psychology among the public. Professor Wen Dongmao of Peking University, based on the thought of Confucian sages, especially Wang Yangming’s “School of the Mind,” has proposed the “Education Theory of Upward, Good-ward, Heart-at-Ease, and Happiness” ( Wen Dongmao, 2023 ). At the same time, there have been empirical studies on the subjective well-being of university students ( Zhou, et al., 2025 ), but almost no scholar [⑥] has examined the various challenges faced by Chinese universities from the perspective of human flourishing. Therefore, this article reviews the various challenges in cultivating talent in Chinese universities and, through the concept of human flourishing and a look back at the university mission and liberal education philosophy of the British educator John Henry Newman, proposes that the mission of the university should be centered on the flourishing of the person. Using China as a case study, the author poses the central question of the university and human flourishing: To what extent do our universities promote or limit the flourishing of the person?

This article is divided into five parts. The first part outlines the doubts and challenges faced by Chinese universities in talent cultivation in recent years. The second part briefly introduces the concept of human flourishing, its characteristics, and influencing factors. The third part reviews Newman’s university mission and his ideas on liberal education, pointing out that his vision for a liberal university education is directed towards a flourishing life. The fourth part examines the challenges of student development in China and proposes that the mission of university education should be to promote human flourishing, and that in the age of artificial intelligence, it is even more imperative that education be oriented towards flourishing. The fifth part provides a conclusion and discussion.

I. Challenges Facing Chinese University Education

Chinese higher education has developed rapidly and on an unprecedented scale, moving from the elite sphere to mass accessibility. However, in recent years, the effectiveness of talent cultivation in Chinese higher education has come under question in various ways, the most famous of which are “Qian Xuesen’s Question,” “Qian Liqun’s Worry,” and the concept of “hollow-heart disease.” At the same time, empirical research has found that the critical thinking skills of Chinese university students, after four years of university, not only fail to improve but actually decline. In addition, a large body of research shows that the detection rate of psychological disorders ( such as depression ) among Chinese university students is relatively high, and the proportion of those who have experienced suicidal ideation, plans, and attempts is not insignificant and warrants attention.

1. “Qian Xuesen’s Question”
“Qian Xuesen’s Question,” in simple terms, is a profound question posed by the renowned Chinese scientist Qian Xuesen in his later years to the Chinese education system: Why can’t Chinese universities consistently cultivate outstanding innovative talent? In 2005, when Premier Wen Jiabao visited Qian Xuesen, Mr. Qian stated, “China has not fully developed yet. This is largely due to the fact that there isn’t a single university structurally set up to cultivate inventors and creative minds in science and technology. They lack their own unique, innovative ways of thinking, and outstanding talent is just not emerging. This is a very big problem.” This has come to be known as “Qian Xuesen’s Question.” It has sparked widespread discussion in the education and science and technology communities, as well as society at large. Many well-known scholars have also joined the discussion, proposing ways to solve “Qian Xuesen’s Question,” such as Qian Yingyi [⑦], the dean of the School of Economics and Management at Tsinghua University; Pan Jianwei [⑧], a professor at the University of Science and Technology of China; and Shi Yigong [⑨], the president of Westlake University. It is no exaggeration to say that “Qian Xuesen’s Question” and how to solve it have become a popular and important topic in the field of Chinese education.

2. “Qian Liqun’s Worry”
Mr. Qian Liqun, a professor in the Chinese Department at Peking University, has shared his observations of contemporary elite university students on multiple occasions since 2008. He has said: “Elite university education today is cultivating a batch of ‘absolute and refined egoists.'” A scholar of Lu Xun, Mr. Qian has expressed similar views in numerous seminars, interviews, and public articles. [⑩] The following is an excerpt from Mr. Qian’s article “What Kind of Top Talent Should Universities Cultivate?” in the Peking University Reader.

…I am currently very worried about these top students — not all of them, of course — but a considerable number of top students, including those at Peking University, make me feel concerned. In my view, true elites should have an independent, free, and creative spirit, as I proposed in my last speech at the Peking University Chinese Department. They should have a sense of self-responsibility, a responsibility toward their profession, and a responsibility toward the country, the nation, society, and humanity. This is the kind of elite I understand and expect. But I feel that our current education system, especially the pragmatic, utilitarian, and nihilistic model of education I just mentioned, is cultivating a batch of what I call “absolute and refined egoists.” “Absolute” means that their own interests are the sole, absolute, and direct driving force of their words and actions; doing things for others is all a form of investment. What does “refined” mean? They have very high IQs, very good manners, and everything they do is reasonable, legal, and without flaw. They are astonishingly worldly, sophisticated, and mature. They deliberately adopt a loyal posture, are very good at cooperating and performing, and are very adept at using the power of the system to achieve their own goals.

“Some of our universities, including Peking University, are cultivating some ‘refined egoists.’ They are highly intelligent, secular, sophisticated, good at performing, adept at cooperating, and even better at using the system to achieve their own goals. Once such people gain power, they are more harmful than ordinary corrupt officials.”

These are the character problems Mr. Qian believes permeate the cultivation of a considerable number of top students in elite universities, which have come to be called  “Qian Liqun’s Worry.” His observation of “self-centeredness” in university students  is widely shared among the populace.

3. “Hollow-Heart Disease”
In a 2016 speech, psychiatrist Dr. Xu Kaiwan claimed, “Nearly forty percent of Peking University students have ‘hollow-heart disease’!” Dr. Xu holds a Ph.D. in clinical psychology and served at the Peking University Counseling Center for over 12 years. Based on his years of experience and observation in providing psychological counseling and crisis intervention services to students at Peking University, he pointed out the existence of this “hollow-heart disease” phenomenon among students. He noted, “‘Hollow-heart disease’ is a metaphor, but it is indeed an illness. You could call it smiling depression. It’s different from severe mental illnesses that are accompanied by abnormal behavior. Emotionally, there don’t seem to be any major problems; there’s no low mood, slowed thinking, or sleep disorders, and all aspects of the students’ performance are normal. But in severe cases, social functioning can be severely impaired, causing a person to lose their direction in life and even fall into depression and suicide. Hollow-heart disease touches upon a no-man’s-land in previous psychological research, which is whether a person has a spiritual life. When a person lacks ideals, beliefs, and values, their spiritual life may collapse. They don’t know the value and meaning of life, so this is also an ultimate question.”
This “hollow-heart disease” described by Dr. Xu may not only exist at Peking University.

4. Precarious Mental Health
If Dr. Xu Kaiwen’s “hollow-heart disease” is just a personal observation, then the large body of research in the literature finding that the mental health of university students is precarious may serve as some form of corroboration. One study found the prevalence of depression among Chinese university students to be as high as 23.8% ( 95% CI: 19.9%-28.5%, n=32,694 ). This study used a meta-analysis of 39 studies from 1997-2015 to arrive at this figure ( Lei et al., 2016 ). Another study published in the Nature sub-journal Scientific Reports ( Gao et al., 2022 ) placed the figure at  28.4% ( 95% CI: 25.7% to 31.2%, n=185,787 ). This study also used a meta-analysis, synthesizing 113 studies. A recent study found that during the COVID-19 pandemic, the figure rose even higher, exceeding one-third ( 34.1% ) ( Huang et al., 2023 ). The prevalence of depression among Chinese university students revealed by these studies is thus between one-quarter and one-third. This is a frightening statistic, meaning that one in every three to four Chinese university students has depression or a tendency toward depression.[11]
In addition, research shows that the proportion of Chinese university students with suicidal ideation is not insignificant. For example, one study ( Li, et al., 2014 ) which extracted and analyzed 41 studies from 2004-2013 found the detection rate of suicidal ideation among Chinese university students to be 10.92% ( 95% CI: 8.41% to 13.28%, n=160,339 ). This means that about one in ten students has had suicidal thoughts. A separate meta-analysis of 29 studies ( n=88,225 ) found that the proportion of those who had attempted suicide in the past 12 months was as high as 2.9% ( 95% CI: 2.0%–3.8% ) ( Yang, et al., 2015 ). A survey at a comprehensive university in Shanghai ( n=6,836 ) showed ( Wu, et al., 2021 ) that 18% had experienced suicidal ideation, 18.8% had made a suicide plan, and 1% had attempted suicide. Among students with suicidal ideation, over 60% ( 61.4% ) felt that life had no value. It is worth noting that while the sample sizes of these studies are large, they are not necessarily nationally representative.

5. Decline in Critical Thinking Skills
In recent years, two academic articles on the development of critical thinking skills among Chinese university students have drawn attention ( Loyalka, et al., 2021; Zhang, et al., 2023 ). The first found a significant decline in the critical thinking skills of Chinese university students, while academic skills in STEM fields showed almost no growth. The second found that there was an increase in the critical thinking skills of Chinese university students, but elite universities did not have a significant advantage.
A study published in 2021 in the Nature sub-journal Nature Human Behaviour attracted widespread attention ( Loyalka, et al., 2021 ). This was a cross-national, longitudinal comparative study of over four years involving nearly 20 researchers from the United States, China, Russia, and India. The study found that in the first year of university, the critical thinking skills of Chinese and American university students were at a similar level. However, as they progressed through university, the critical thinking skills of Chinese students declined significantly in the last two years compared to their American counterparts, while their academic skills showed almost no significant improvement.
The research team compared the changes in critical thinking skills of university students from the four countries at different stages of their university education. First-year Chinese students’ critical thinking skills were comparable to those of first-year American students, but significantly higher than first-year Indian students and also noticeably higher than first-year Russian students. By the end of the second year, Chinese students’ critical thinking skills were still significantly higher than Indian students, slightly higher than Russian students, and comparable to American students. However, by the end of the fourth year, while Chinese students’ scores were still significantly higher than Indian students, they were not significantly different from Russian students, and far below fourth-year American students. The gap in critical thinking skills at graduation was mainly due to the differences in skill growth in the last two years of university among the four countries. In contrast, students at elite Chinese universities showed no growth in critical thinking, math, or physics skills in the first two years, while students at non-elite universities showed a significant decline in critical thinking skills. The sharp decline in the academic skills of students at both elite and non-elite Chinese universities—in stark contrast to the growth in India and Russia—is shocking. The researchers offer a possible explanation that Chinese students are rarely forced to drop out of courses or withdraw from school due to poor grades, and thus have lower motivation to learn. Another possible reason is that Chinese university professors assign less out-of-class homework and reading, which may also limit student learning outcomes. In contrast, students in India and Russia may be more motivated to learn because they face regular assessments and the risk of failing.
An article by Professor Shen Hong’s team at Southern University of Science and Technology ( Zhang et al., 2023 ) found that over 50% of the sampled university students showed an increase in critical thinking skills. However, this study also found that the increase in critical thinking skills for students from key universities ( 985, 211 universities ) was not significantly better than that of students from ordinary universities.

6. Labor Market Performance Unrelated to Academic Performance
A large body of empirical research shows that the rate of return on investment in university education in China is quite high. On average, one year of university education increases wage income by at least 10%. A recent study by Professor Li Hongbin of Stanford University and others ( Li, et al., 2023 ) found that the wage income differences of Chinese university graduates in the labor market seem to be mainly explained by variables such as whether they are a member of the Communist Party and whether they graduated from an elite university, and are not significantly related to factors such as academic performance during university ( GPA ) or participation in internships. This study suggests that signaling theory and social network theory may be better able to explain the labor market performance of university graduates than human capital theory.

7. An Urgent Need for an Interpretive Framework
How should we understand these challenges in Chinese universities, especially in the development of Chinese university students? What are the common features or internal logic of these challenges? Mr. Qian Xuesen’s concern about the cultivation of top innovative talent in our country seems to focus on the “national-level players” while ignoring the vast majority of ordinary university students. The phenomenon of “refined egoism,” coined by Mr. Qian Liqun, is a character issue among elite university students. Mr. Xu Kaiwen’s revelation of “hollow-heart disease” among Peking University students is a spiritual problem—mainly the phenomenon of university students lacking purpose and meaning. The high prevalence of mental and psychological disorders and the detection rate of suicidal ideation[12] among university students are also related to a lack of meaning in life. The decline in students’ critical thinking skills, coupled with the lack of advantage elite universities grant their students in this aspect of education, is a dimension of the cognitive development of university students.

II. Human Flourishing, a New Perspective

1. Human Flourishing: The Revival of an Ancient Concept

Human flourishing [13] refers to a holistic, positive, and meaningful state of life in which an individual’s potential is fully realized, and all aspects of an individual’s life are relatively good within the context of their environment. Etymologically, “flourish” comes from the Latin florere, meaning “to flower,” which gives a sense  of living in harmony with one’s environment and receiving nourishment from it. It does not only mean that an individual is “doing well” or is “successful,” but also implies that the environment itself is in a good state. This refers to a holistic,and profound state of life, where there is a harmonious, growing, and meaningful interaction between the individual and their environment.

Human flourishing is first and foremost an ethical concept, which is commonly traced back to the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle ( 384-322 BCE ), who proposed Eudaimonia, a state of supreme happiness that emphasizes the achievement of a happy life through the rational cultivation of virtue and the development of personal potential. In fact, the concept of human flourishing is much older than this ancient Greek philosopher.[14] In the Hebrew scriptures, the concept of human flourishing is found everywhere. For example, in the book of Psalms, two kinds of lives are compared with each other. One is a blessed life: “He is like a tree planted by streams of water, which yields its fruit in season and whose leaf does not wither.” The other is a shallow, unblessed life: “like chaff that the wind blows away,” which “will not stand” in the righteous judgment. Such a life “will perish.” In addition, the Jewish greeting Shalom, “peace,” also connotes a state of blessedness and flourishing.

Over the past three decades, this ancient concept of human flourishing has been revitalized. Initially, the concept was only discussed in the field of philosophical ethics. The British philosopher G.E.M. Anscombe ( 1919-2001 ) criticized modern moral philosophy for going astray and proposed that ethics should return to Aristotle’s virtue ethics, focusing on human flourishing ( Anscombe, 1958 ). The Canadian philosopher Hugo Meynell argued that the core of human flourishing lies in the combination of virtue and reason, especially divine reason ( Meynell, 1969; 1980 ). In the last 20-30 years, the concept has entered the field of psychology, in particular promoting the emergence and popularization of positive psychology. Beyond that, the concept has also entered disciplines such as public health, economics, law, ecology, environmental science, political science, education, public policy, and even brain science and cognitive neuroscience ( De Ruyter, et al., 2022 ) and has established itself as an important concept in these fields.

The reason the concept of human flourishing has rapidly gained popularity  in so many disciplines may be because it provides a new perspective that is positively integrative and focuses on the development of individuals and communities, responding to the deep needs of contemporary society, education, psychology, and public policy. First, human flourishing provides a new perspective on what it means to be human. This concept shifts people’s understanding of humanity from being problem-oriented to potential-oriented. Traditional disciplines often focus on the problematic side of human life, such as disease, poverty, and failure, while human flourishing emphasizes the potential and healthy side of human life. The concept of human flourishing prompts scholars in various disciplines to focus on some important basic questions. For example, what does human flourishing mean? What makes people live better? How can human potential be realized? How can one build a meaningful life? The shift from a problem-oriented to a potential-oriented approach has made human flourishing a new focus in multiple disciplinary fields.

Second, the concept of human flourishing attempts to respond to the deep anxieties of post-modern society. In the context of globalization, technologization, and heightened competition, individuals face various mental health crises, loss of values, and social isolation. People need to rethink concepts like “success” and “happiness.” And human flourishing seems to provide a positive and hopeful vision of life; it helps people to reexamine the meaning of life and hope to reestablish deep interpersonal connections.

Third, human flourishing is interdisciplinary and integrative in nature. Human flourishing is a highly inclusive concept that can find resonance in many different disciplines. For example, in psychology, it focuses on well-being, a sense of meaning, and positive emotions, and the rapid development of positive psychology is closely tied to the concept of human flourishing. In education, it focuses on holistic development, character education, and the intrinsic motivation of students. In public health, it focuses on the holistic physical and mental health of individuals and communities, not just the absence of disease. In economics, many economists have proposed shifting the focus from measuring GDP as the primary indicator of national economic development to the economics of happiness and the quality of life of individuals ( Sen, 2008 ).

However, there is still no unified definition of human flourishing. It is related to concepts like happiness, well-being, and wellness, but it also transcends them. “Happiness” tends to be a subjective, pleasant, and transient state; “well-being” refers to a state of being where one subjectively feels good ( Lomas & VanderWeele, 2023 ).

2. Characteristics of Human Flourishing

Although there are many different definitions of human flourishing, most scholars agree on the following characteristics of the concept, including its multidimensionality and holistic nature, its dynamism and process-orientation, the dependence of individual flourishing on the environment, the combination of subjectivity and objectivity, autonomy and agency, and locality and universality.

(1) Multidimensionality and Holism. The multidimensionality of human flourishing means that flourishing consists of multiple aspects of a person being in a relatively good state, not only one single dimension. The health and balance of a person’s cognitive, physical, psychological, emotional, social, and spiritual life are all different aspects of a flourishing life. For example, the Human Flourishing Program at Harvard University has proposed a framework for a flourishing life and its environmental influences, which includes five dimensions[15]: happiness and life satisfaction, physical and mental health, meaning and purpose, character and virtue, and close social relationships ( Vander Weele, 2017 ). The father of positive psychology, Professor Martin Seligman, proposed the five dimensions of flourishing, “PERMA” ( Seligman, 2011 ), which include Positive Emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment. There are some differences between these frameworks, but there is also considerable consistency. For example, they all carry a dimension of meaning and purpose in life and emphasize the importance of interpersonal social relationships. In recent years, some scholars have also proposed a three-dimensional model of human flourishing ( Briggs & Reiss, 2021 ): the material, the relational, and the transcendent. The material dimension includes physical health (bodily functions, nutrition, sleep, lifespan, etc.) and financial stability ( secure housing, income ), etc. The relational dimension includes various relationships with other people ( social, parent-child, spousal, friendship, etc. ), as well as the relationship between people and nature and the environment. The transcendent dimension mainly refers to one’s spiritual life, including the relationship between a person and eternity—for example, the sense of sublime one may experience through literary and artistic works, the awe one may feel in the face of natural beauty, and faith that transcends suffering and death. They believe that the core of flourishing lies in the pursuit of eternal truth, meaningful goals, and values.
Holism means that the different dimensions of a flourishing life are not completely isolated and unrelated, but are interconnected and influence each other. Just like the different branches of a tree, they may seem unrelated, but the transport and delivery of nutrients and water that allow the tree to grow are all connected to the roots. It is obvious that a university student who only performs well academically but lacks good character cannot be said to have a flourishing life.

(2) Dynamism and Process-Orientation. In terms of time scale, flourishing refers to a lifelong dynamic process rather than achievements at certain points in time. In different seasons of life, a person has different main roles and responsibilities to undertake. For example, “passing the imperial examination with distinction”—getting into a top university like Tsinghua, Peking, Fudan, or Jiaotong—is what most Chinese students dream of, a highlight of life, but it is a static state and does not indicate flourishing. Receiving multiple well-paying and decent job offers upon graduation is the result of long-term effort by the student and family expectations, but this is also a static state and does not necessarily entail a flourishing life. The “wedding night”—entering the hall of marriage—also does not necessarily mean a successful marriage and a happy family. The recent tragedy of the “Google engineer who killed his wife” in the California Bay Area can serve as a cautionary tale to understand the dynamic and continuous nature of the concept of flourishing. In this case, both the husband and wife had been admitted to Tsinghua University with outstanding results. After graduation, they went abroad to study and got jobs as engineers at Google. They had already purchased a multi-million dollar property in the Bay Area. However, when problems arose in their marriage and they could not handle the crisis, the husband beat his wife to death with his fists. We can hardly say that this young couple had a flourishing life.

(3) Dependence of Individual Flourishing on the Environment. Individual flourishing is profoundly influenced by the environment in which one is situated. The material, social, cultural, and institutional aspects of the environment are extremely important for individual flourishing. The flourishing of a person depends on the environment, but it is also possible to transcend the environment. Just as a dry desert is not conducive to the growth of most plants, in a harsh political, social, and cultural environment, it is difficult for a person to thrive and flourish. Ms. Guo Li, an alumna of the Chinese Department at Peking University who once worked at Peking University Press, recently compiled the history of the university. Her compilation revealed that from 1953 to 1956, 164 faculty members and students from the Physics Department at Peking University were classified as rightists, including 9 faculty members. After the Anti-Rightist Campaign and the Cultural Revolution, many of these elite university students, selected from all over the country, died unnatural deaths, including being executed, starving to death in prison or on labor reform farms, and committing suicide. Many attempted to flee the country and were imprisoned. Many suffered from mental illness, and many died of depression. One notable exception was a man who benefited from the Sino-American Physics Examination and Application program initiated by Mr. Tsung-Dao Lee; he was able to enter Columbia University for his Ph.D., and achieved outstanding success in the United States. Aside from him, most others withered away.[16] Therefore, individual flourishing is highly related to the community and environment in which one is situated. In rare cases a person can still make breakthroughs and develop their potential in a harsh or corrupt environment, but true flourishing must also consider the influence of social and environmental factors.

(4) Combination of Subjectivity and Objectivity. Human flourishing is not just a positive psychological feeling, but a state that includes both subjective feelings and objective aspects ( De Ruyter, 2004 ). On the one hand, it includes subjective factors such as self-satisfaction, happiness, and other positive emotions. On the other hand, human flourishing is also rooted in objectivity,  namely one’s physical health, cognitive level, ability to find meaningful work, and close interpersonal relationships.

(5) Autonomy and Agency. An important characteristic of human flourishing is manifested in the display and practice of positive psychological traits and abilities. Autonomy is expressed as self-determination, the feeling of being in control of one’s own life. Positive psychological qualities, such as resilience, the ability to recover strength in the face of adversity and setbacks; and grit, the will not to give up on one’s goals. Recently, many economics studies using randomized controlled trials have found the positive effects of psychological traits.[17] There are many such examples in human history and in our current age. For example, Nick Vujicic, born in Australia in 1982, was born without limbs. As a child, he almost committed suicide because he felt useless due to his physical disability, but through his strong will and unremitting effort, he mastered difficult sports such as football, swimming, diving, and surfing. He went to university and obtained a double bachelor’s degree in accounting and financial planning. He also became a world-renowned motivational speaker, published several inspirational books, and uses his own story to persuade people that life is a miracle and to never give up.[18]

(6) Specificity and Universality. Different cultures have different understandings of human flourishing. Nevertheless, some important dimensions of human flourishing also have a universality that transcends cultural differences ( Höltge, et al., 2023; Vander Weele, et al., 2023; Dahlsgaard, et al., 2005 ). For example, almost all cultures agree on the importance of character and virtue, including faithfulness, love, wisdom, temperance, courage, justice, compassion, etc., and that virtue is a core dimension of human flourishing. A flourishing life is also a life that blesses others and the world through virtue.

(7) Purpose and Meaning. The core of a flourishing life lies in having goals that are purposeful and meaningful to the individual. Such a life has direction, purpose, and a sense of value. A foundation in truth, purpose, and a sense of meaning are called the three foundations of a flourishing life ( Briggs & Reiss, 2021 ).

In summary, a flourishing life is a beautiful state of life that is multidimensional, dynamic, dependent on the environment yet possessing autonomy and agency, and characterized by the display of virtue, the pursuit of purpose and meaning, and having both subjective feelings and objective foundations. That is, it is a positive state of life that demonstrates potential in a suitable environment, and sometimes even in adversity.

3. The Path to Human Flourishing

What factors influence and determine human flourishing? Some scholars have proposed that a good family life, meaningful work, a good level of education, and participation in faith community activities are all factors that influence flourishing ( Vander Weele, 2017 ). As shown in the figure, the four factors mentioned above are each related to the five dimensions of a flourishing life.[19] While  education is obviously an important factor affecting human flourishing, it is not the only one. In addition, a large body of research shows that cognitive interventions ( expressing gratitude, imagining one’s best self ), practicing virtues (patience), behavioral changes ( showing kindness to strangers ), positive community involvement ( volunteering ), a good marital relationship, etc., are all factors that influence a flourishing life ( Vander Weele, 2020 ). Some scholars have also offered a flourishing-happiness equation: Family, Friends, Faith, and Meaningful Work ( Brooks & Winfrey, 2023 ).

III. Newman’s Idea of a Liberal Education and Human Flourishing

The mission of the university, one of the oldest institutions in human history, is constantly changing and evolving. The modern university originated with the University of Bologna in Italy ( founded in 1088 ) and the University of Paris in France ( c. 1150-1170 ). Their main mission was to cultivate talent across the legal, medical, and theological fields. Their function was talent cultivation, the transmission of knowledge, and the preservation of civilization. From the early 19th to the early 20th century, scientific research was introduced as an important mission of the university, and the creation and discovery of knowledge became two equally important functions and missions of the university. Wilhelm von Humboldt ( 1767-1835 ), the former president of the University of Berlin in Germany, is the originator of the modern research university. He emphasized that scientific research is an important mission of the university and proposed the unity of teaching and research. The famous British educator John Henry Newman ( 1801-1890 ), in his time, faced the challenge of the constantly expanding mission of the university. Clark Kerr ( 1911-2003 ), the former president of the University of California, proposed the concept of the multiversity in the 1960s. He believed that the university has at least three basic functions: scientific research, talent cultivation, and social service. Although the educational mission of the university has been constantly squeezed by the growth of other new functions and missions, the mission of cultivating people should always be the central mission of the university.

It is meaningful to review Newman’s ideas about the university, especially his discourse on liberal education. Newman lived in the post-Enlightenment era and prophetically noted the destructive effects of the “new trends of the times”—secularism, utilitarianism, scientism, and professionalism—on the university. He believed that the core mission of the university is to help students on the path to human flourishing through a liberal education ( Shrimpton, 2022; Ungurean, 2025 ). He emphasized that universal knowledge is an end in itself, and its purpose is to train the minds, character, and habits of thought of young people. He believed that the university achieves a great but ordinary end through a great ordinary means: its purpose should not be a commitment to cultivate so-called “outstanding innovative talent,” but to serve and improve society by cultivating people who lead lives of flourishing—good members of society.

1. The Core Mission of the University is to Cultivate Students Towards a Flourishing Life

In Newman’s view, the mission of the university is to lead students towards lives of human flourishing through a liberal education. “A University is a place of teaching universal knowledge. This implies that its object is, on the one hand, intellectual, not moral; and, on the other, that it is the diffusion and extension of knowledge rather than the advancement. If its object were scientific and philosophical discovery, I do not see why a University should have students.” “The education of the student is called liberal. This can form a habit of mind which is its own end, and is characterized by freedom, equitableness, calmness, moderation, and wisdom.”[20] Students learn for the sake of knowledge itself, not for any external practical value, such as career preparation, or the so-called “benefiting society by pursuing science and knowledge.” These cannot inspire any genuine intrinsic motivation to pursue knowledge.[ 21 ]

He pointed out that a liberal university education is an education of the whole person. Such a person possesses good self-awareness, a clear mind, an excellent ability to articulate himself, a sincere attitude, and great fortitude. Newman, with his elegant prose, described the characteristics of a person cultivated by his ideal of a liberal education:

“That training of the intellect, which is best for the individual himself, best enables him to discharge his duties to society. The Philosopher, indeed, and the man of the world differ in their very notion, but the methods, by which they are respectively formed, are nevertheless akin, and illustrate and benefit each other. The Philosopher has the same command of matters in general, which the true citizen and gentleman has of matters in detail. If then a practical end must be assigned to a University course, I say it is that of training good members of society.”[ 22 ]

In Newman’s vision of the university, a liberal education cultivates well-rounded people. They are not narrow specialists; they are able to switch careers with ease. They form harmonious interpersonal relationships and have strong social and emotional skills. They are empathetic and tolerant.

“It is the education which gives a man a clear conscious view of his own opinions and judgments, a truth in developing them, an eloquence in expressing them, and a force in urging them. It teaches him to see things as they are, to go right to the point, to disentangle a skein of thought, to detect what is sophistical, and to discard what is irrelevant.”[23]

People cultivated by a liberal university education can handle the relationship between their inner self and the outer world, find true inner happiness and satisfaction, and manage the relationship between wealth and success. Even in the failures and disappointments of life, they remain resilient. In this sense, the goal of a university education is also very practical.

“He is at home in any society, he has common ground with every class; he knows when to speak and when to be silent; he is able to converse, he is able to listen; he can ask a question pertinently, and gain a lesson seasonably, when he has nothing to impart himself; he is ever ready, yet never in the way; he is a pleasant companion, and a comrade you can depend upon; he knows when to be serious and when to trifle, and he has a sure tact which enables him to trifle with gracefulness and to be serious with effect.”[ 24 ]

2. The Great and Ordinary Practical End of the University

Although Newman was from an elite background, he opposed elitism. He graduated from Oxford University, where he studied mathematics and classics, and continued to study and reside at Oxford for over 30 years. He believed that the mission of university education is to achieve “a great but ordinary end.” This great end is to cultivate good members of society. This ordinary end is to refute the concept of cultivating “outstanding talent” as the university’s purpose. He wrote, “It is not the business of a University to make poets or immortal authors, founders of schools, leaders of colonies, or conquerors of nations. It does not promise to make Aristotles or Newtons, Napoleons or Washingtons, Raphaels or Shakespeares, though such miracles of nature it has before now contained within its precincts.”[ 25 ] Newman believed that the purpose of the university is not to pursue so-called “outstanding innovative talent,” because geniuses and heroes are not produced by conventional means and are not bound by any rules.

Newman believed that the great end of the university is to make a person competent for his social duties through the intellectual training that is most beneficial to their individual development and growth. A university education not only cultivates people who lead lives of flourishing but also people who serve society well instead of remaining detached from it. He wrote in The Idea of a University, “If then a practical end must be assigned to a University course, I say it is that of training good members of society. This art is the art of social life, and its end is fitness for the world. It neither confines its views to particular professions on the one hand, nor creates heroes or inspires genius on the other.”[ 26 ]

“It is the education which aims at raising the intellectual tone of society, at cultivating the public mind, at purifying the national taste, at supplying true principles to popular enthusiasm and fixed aims to popular aspiration, at giving enlargement and sobriety to the ideas of the age, at facilitating the exercise of political power, and refining the intercourse of private life.”[ 27 ]

He believed that the mission of the university is not just to cultivate craftsmen with practical skills. “Nor is it content on the other hand with forming the critic or the experimentalist, the economist or the engineer, though such professions, of course, it includes in its activity.”

3. A Liberal Education Model of Life Influencing Life
How to realize the idea of a liberal university education that cultivates people? Newman was not only an educational theorist but also a practitioner. As the founding rector of the Catholic University of Ireland in Dublin, drawing upon his more than 30 years of experience at Oxford, he not only designed all aspects of the new university but also personally took on the role of head of a residential college, where he oversaw 12 students and 2 teaching fellows ( Shrimpton, 2022 ). At the same time, he served as the university chaplain and tutor to accompany and shepherd students’ growth. In his view, a liberal education happens in the deep interactions between people; it is the influence of one life on another.[ 28 ] This influence of life on life is transmitted through tutors who live alongside the students.

He not only valued the core elements of a liberal education—the residential system, the mentorship system, and interdisciplinary knowledge—but valued informal learning among students even more. In his estimation, a university education is not just about professors teaching students and giving exams; more important are the interaction and mutual learning among students. This happens in informal settings outside the classroom, such as music, debate, sports, and various club activities. He mentioned multiple times, “If I had to choose between a so-called university which … gave its degrees to any person who passed an examination in a wide range of subjects, and a university which had no professors or examinations at all, but merely brought a number of young men together for three or four years, and then sent them away … I have no hesitation in giving the preference to that University which did nothing.”[ 29 ]
He believed that this kind of liberal education of free interaction among individuals is more successful in training, shaping, and expanding the minds of young people.
In short, Newman’s vision and mission for university education aim to lead people on the path to a flourishing life of pursuing truth and virtue by pursuing universal knowledge for its own sake, regardless if some might regard this as impractical. It holds education itself as its end, rather than focusing on practical professional and vocational education, so that the minds and character of students can reach their full potential. Such a university education can enrich the overall culture of a society as a whole.

IV. University Education Aimed at Human Flourishing

Through the introduction of the concept of human flourishing and the review of Newman’s university mission, the author hereby proposes the view that university education should be aimed at human flourishing. The concept of human flourishing provides us with a mirror to examine how far today’s university education has deviated from the core end of human development. For a long time, the educational values put forth by human capital theory have treated education, especially higher education, as merely a tool. In the era of the popularization and mass accessibility of higher education, and as artificial intelligence rapidly develops, it is particularly important to return to Newman’s prophetic university mission. The various challenges in cultivating people in Chinese universities are, in fact, representative of how university education globally has lost its way.

1. Viewing the Challenges of Cultivating People in Chinese Universities Through the Lens of Human Flourishing

In the first part of this article, the author reviewed the problems and challenges in talent cultivation in Chinese universities. If we approach them from the perspective of the concept of human flourishing and Newman’s university mission, the central problem our universities face is instrumentalism and utilitarianism. In other words, universities treat the end of education as a means, and education itself as a means, rather than making human flourishing the end of education. For example, “Qian Xuesen’s Question” carries a mindset of instrumentalism. It makes so-called “cultivation of top innovative talent” a practical goal, which is a manifestation of the instrumentalization of elite talent cultivation. This is, in fact, far removed from the university mission advocated by Newman more than 170 years ago. “Qian Liqun’s Worry” observes that a considerable number of students in elite universities do not demonstrate virtue and character, and that possessing virtue is a core dimension of a flourishing life ( Vander Weele, 2017 ). Aristotle’s idea of flourishing or a happy life ( Eudaimonia ) refers to a virtuous life. Mr. Qian pointed out the utilitarianism manifested in our elite university students who use others as tools to achieve their own goals. Mr. Xu Kaiwen explores a  “hollow-heart disease” that plagues campuses, and the shockingly high proportion of mental health problems and suicidal ideation revealed by a large number of studies among university students. He points to  the loss of meaning and purpose among students as a major driving force behind these phenomena. He believes that students lose their sense of purpose and meaning because they lack a spiritual foundation. When university education gradually abandons any inquiry into the meaning of life and instead focuses on skills training and professional success, university students may gain professional knowledge and acquire a high-paying job for a while, but they cannot answer the fundamental question of “what am I living for.”
Another root cause of mental health problems among university students is the failure to develop healthy relationships. Students are often in a fierce competitive relationship with each other rather than blessing and building each other up. For the sake of GPA, scholarships, and being selected into the student union or youth league committee, relationships among students have become abnormal. In addition, many students rarely participate in volunteer activities to serve the community and others. The author was once invited to give a lecture to university students on “University Students’ Participation in Social Welfare” as part of a moral education course and found that very few students had participated in volunteer services. A utilitarian and pragmatic mindset leads students to become self-centered and lose a healthy connection with society.
The decline or lack of significant increase in the critical thinking skills of Chinese university students is, on the surface, a problem of insufficient cognitive development, but in essence, it is rooted in the instrumental and utilitarian nature of education. They have not developed the ability to ask the right questions. They may be knowledgeable and know a lot of “what,” but they don’t ask “why.” They have lost the pursuit and pleasure of knowledge for its own sake. They have lost their curiosity about the world. More importantly, learning for utilitarian ends is also an important reason why it is difficult to form critical thinking skills ( Qian Yingyi, 2018 ).
Empirical research reveals that the labor market performance ( income ) of Chinese university students is not strongly correlated to their academic performance during university, but rather to their identity ( whether they are a Communist Party member ) and school type ( whether they are from an elite 985 or 211 university ). Behind this are macro-level social structural and market problems. This shows that political identity and entering an elite university yield high economic returns. This material and economic gain drives the personal choices of students. Research shows that the economic level is not directly related to human flourishing ( Vander Weele & Johnson, 2025; Easterlin, 1974 ).

2. Moving Beyond the Negative Influence of Human Capital Theory

The underlying logic behind human capital theory is, in essence, sees only the instrumental value of higher education. At the national level, the mission of higher education is to develop science and technology, enhance the nation’s power, become more competitive internationally, and counter “stranglehold” problems, so that the country and the nation can stand among the world’s great powers. At the family and individual level, the purpose of receiving a university education is to seek economic returns and to obtain higher social status. There is a tension between the expectations of the government and society for higher education at the macro level and the expectations of individuals and families at the micro level ( Chan, 2016 ).
Under the framework of human capital theory, policymakers, researchers, educational administrators at all levels, as well as parents and students, all accept this theory as a default assumption, without deeply questioning its rationality. For example, “Qian Xuesen’s Question” and the current concern of education policymakers about the cultivation of “top innovative talent” essentially treat people as merely “productive human capital.” The values behind this are actually utilitarianism and pragmatism. One might compare this to how China has tried to build up its national football program by investing heavily in “select seedlings” in the hopes that China’s football team will become more competitive in the global arena. This utilitarian and pragmatic worldview is far from the idea of a liberal university education advocated by Newman. Mr. Newman’s “ordinary and great” educational goal for a liberal university education is fundamentally opposed to utilitarianism and pragmatism. In terms of goals, it does not promise that the university will cultivate “top innovative talent.” In terms of methods, it emphasizes the importance of so-called “useless knowledge” and opposes excessive professional education in preparing students for a career.
In the fields of economics of education, labor economics, and development economics, the core dependent variables in the large number of empirical studies conducted are mostly unrelated to human flourishing but are instead tied to the instrumental value of people. Economic growth, years of education, employment status, wage income, academic performance, whether one enters university and what type of university one enters ( “985” or “211” ), etc., are the most common dependent variables. These are the variables that human capital theory is most concerned about. Taking the large number of empirical studies that the author has participated in over the past decade as an example, the core variables of these studies are mainly test scores[ 30 ] ( primary and secondary school math or reading, gaokao scores ), and rates of entering high school, university, and “good” universities, etc. Behind our research are these default assumptions: it is good for students to score one more point on an academic exam, it is good to receive more education, and it is good to enter a “better” university. We rarely ask the question, does this education promote human flourishing? At the same time, these empirical studies are published in highly regarded academic journals and bear influence in the academic world ( reflected in a certain citation rate ), but their impact on the lives of students seems to be minimal.
In fact, the output variables that we, as researchers in the economics of education working in universities, focus on are almost no different from those that parents are concerned with. When their children are young, most parents hope they will go on to lead healthy and happy lives, but once they enter school, their priorities change.   Good academic performance, entering a good primary school, junior high, high school, and then a good university ( preferably a famous one like Tsinghua, Peking, Harvard, or Yale ) seem to be the most important goals.

3. Universities Should Aim for Human Flourishing as their Core Goal

With the revival and advocacy of the concept of human flourishing, university education should do more to promote the comprehensive development of the individual lives of university students. To borrow a symbolic narrative from the Hebrew scriptures, human flourishing is for a person to be like a tree planted by streams of water, which “yields its fruit in season and whose leaf does not wither” ( Psalm 1:3 ). That is, every human individual, if they can be rooted in a suitable environment and nourished by the soil, water, air, and sunlight, can grow beautifully according to their potential. The highest value of a university education lies in guiding students to pursue eternal truth and to return to the living source of life. The true mission of a university education is to allow students to develop holistically in their physical, cognitive, emotional, and relational capacity, to awaken their souls, develop their life potential, discover their life’s calling, and make a positive impact on the world around them. A good education promotes human flourishing, so that those who have happiness can become a blessing to their families, communities, society, and the world.

4. The Call for a University Aimed at Human Flourishing in the AI Era

Humanity is currently on the cusp of a General Artificial Intelligence ( GAI ) revolution. This revolution will undoubtedly greatly change the way humans work, live, and educate. On the one hand, GAI will greatly increase human productivity, and the degree of material abundance that humans will achieve will exceed our imagination. Material wealth will be so great that the core concept of economics, “resource scarcity,” will change. On the other hand, a large number of existing job types will be replaced by AI, and society’s need for human productive capital will be greatly reduced. People may have more leisure time. The average human lifespan may also be extended. “What it means to be human in the AI era” will become an important issue. As fragile and mortal animals, humans may need to ask more about meaning: why do I live? How can I live a valuable and meaningful life? People may grow more distant from their fellow humans instead of drawing closer in relationship. The gap in cognitive ability between people with more education and those with less may widen even further… Every area of human life will undergo huge changes beyond what we can imagine. In education, where teachers have traditionally been the vehicle to impart large amounts of knowledge to students, AI’s efficiency and quality of information may surpass the most knowledgeable teachers today. But in terms of the development of the human mind and character, curiosity, a sense of awe, ethical choices in complex situations, the ability to ask important and interesting questions, etc., AI can never replace the teacher. In other words, a liberal education of life influencing life will become even more important and urgent.

V. Conclusion and Discussion

Chinese higher education has become the largest education system in the world, yet it faces various challenges in talent cultivation, including: Why is it difficult for our universities to produce top innovative and outstanding talent? ( “Qian Xuesen’s Question” ); Elite universities are cultivating a considerable number of “absolute and refined egoists” ( “Qian Liqun’s Worry” ); A considerable proportion of university students suffer from “hollow-heart disease” and mental health crises due to a lack of purpose and meaning; The critical thinking skills of university students do not grow during their time at university; and the labor market performance of university graduates seems to have no direct relationship with their academic performance during university, etc. To understand these challenges, this article, based on the concept of human flourishing and Newman’s idea of a liberal university education, examines how university education currently treats people as productive machines and tools of survival. Therefore, this article proposes that university education should return to the goal of human flourishing. This article calls on people to break free from the invisible shackles of the human capital theory framework. Especially in an era when artificial intelligence will comprehensively reshape work, life, interpersonal relationships, and even “what it means to be human,” such a return and shift is particularly important.

Some Possible Objections or Counterarguments

Many scholars have already opposed making human flourishing the aim of education, with arguments such as: ( 1 ) the concept is ill-defined and insufficiently clear ( Carr, 2021 ); ( 2 ) many factors affect human flourishing, such as society, politics, culture, and the environment, and education is only one of them; ( 3 ) the concept is not easy to operationalize and does not seem to provide strong guidance on what constitutes good education; ( 4 ) emphasizing character education seems to risk imposing a certain set of moral values over others. Some scholars have already responded to these objections ( Curren et al., 2024; Vander Weele, et al., 2023 ). Other doubts or objections may include:

• Newman’s idea of a liberal university education is outdated. His ideas from more than 170 years ago had limited influence then and will not gain more traction in this era—we can call this the “outdated theory.”
• The trend of utilitarianism, pragmatism, and instrumentalism in university education is an established reality. This trend is irreversible, and it is too late to propose the idea of a university education aimed at human flourishing—this can be called the “reality theory.”
• A liberal university education is too much of a luxury. Ordinary families cannot afford such an expensive educational investment. If university graduates cannot find employment, a liberal university education will not be able to meet the expectations of individuals and families for a return on their university education—this can be called the “price theory.”
• It may be more suitable to focus on human flourishing as a goal for students in younger grades, before they reach  university—this can be called the “stage theory.”
• The factors affecting human flourishing are not only university education but also many that the university cannot control, such as the political, economic, cultural, and historical factors of the era—this can be called the “environment theory.”
• The human capital theory framework has become the default assumption that influences and dominates people’s thinking and behaviors in the fields of economics and public policy. The concept of human flourishing is unlikely to replace this mainstream theory—this can be called the “mainstream theory.”

These doubts and arguments are rational to different extents. The author would like to offer a brief response here.
Regarding the “outdated theory,” perhaps quoting Newman’s discussion of the value of Aristotle’s philosophy more than 170 years ago is a good response in itself. He wrote, “Do not suppose, that in thus appealing to the ancients, I am throwing back the world two thousand years, and fettering Philosophy with the reasonings of paganism. The dicta of entwicklung of that philosopher, in spite of the feverish activity of science and the protest of faith, were still recognized as the gospel of the intellect. The utterer of that prayer was the Stagyrite. What he has been to the world, he will be to the end of it; for he is the philosopher of nature, and the master of truth. And, as long as we are men, we cannot be otherwise than, in a great measure, Aristotelians; for the great Master does but analyze the thoughts, feelings, views, and opinions of human kind. He has told us the meaning of our own words and ideas, before we were born. In many matters, to think correctly, is to think like Aristotle; and we are his disciples whether we will or no, though we may not know it.”[ 30]
Similarly, Newman’s idea of a liberal university education is not outdated. His thinking about the mission of the university points to human flourishing, a concept that is not only contained in Aristotle’s thinking about the ultimate happiness of humanity but also in the concept of what it means to be human in the Hebrew civilization, which predates Aristotle. In this sense, we are all Newman’s disciples.
Regarding the “reality theory,” that is, the seemingly unstoppable global trend of utilitarianism, pragmatism, and instrumentalism in the university education system, the author’s response is that we believe in the power of concepts, the power of ideas, and the power of discourse. In fact, human capital theory has only been firmly established in the field of economics for 60-70 years. Of course, it is very difficult to replace it with the concept of human flourishing. Just as in 1989, when US President Reagan visited West Germany, the Berlin Wall was still impregnable. Yet he, with faith and courage, delivered an impassioned speech imploring his USSR counterpart to “Tear down this wall!” At that time, no one believed the Berlin Wall would fall! Of course, this analogy may not be fully applicable. To break the real inertia of utilitarianism, pragmatism, and instrumentalism in global higher education may be more difficult than tearing down the Berlin Wall.
Regarding the “price theory,” it sounds quite reasonable, but in fact, this is an empirical research question. Many empirical studies have shown that a liberal education yields a good long-term rate of return on investment ( Hill & Pisacreta, 2019 ). For example, the well-known economist David Deming of Harvard University has published research proving that the social skills stemming from a liberal education ( such as teamwork ) yield a good rate of return on investment ( Deming, 2017 ). He and researchers from other fields have together explained the true value of a liberal university education.[ 31 ]
The “stage theory” and “environment theory” are undoubtedly very good arguments. The argument about the mission of the university and human flourishing must be limited to a reasonable scope. , The reasons for making human flourishing the educational goal in pre-university education have been well established by many scholars in the field of philosophy of education ( Kristjánsson, 2017; De Ruyter, et al., 2022; Materla, 2024; Curren et al., 2024 ). Regarding the importance of university education for human flourishing, we admit that this argument is also just an exploratory attempt with a certain practical scope ( Vander Weele & Case, 2025 ). In fact, the educator Newman addressed this topic more than 170 years ago, and we can turn to him again. In the preface to The Idea of a University, he argued:

“Those who have plenty of time … will continue their studies till twenty-one or twenty-two; and thus they will have a full and cultivated life. A young man who has finished his education at seventeen is no match for one who has been at it till twenty-two…”[ 32 ]

The “environment theory” objection to higher education and human flourishing is extremely important, and in fact, we have limited room for rebuttal. In fact, this is beyond the scope of this article and may be worth a separate discussion.
The “mainstream” status of human capital theory is indeed difficult to shake, and if the concept of human flourishing is to become an alternative theory in the field of education, especially in higher education, it needs to be greatly improved in terms of conceptual clarity and measurement tool theoretical assumptions.

Limitations of This Article

Undoubtedly, this article still has many limitations. First, this article only explores the reality of the instrumentalization of higher education but does not explain why this reality has become mainstream. Second, this article does not go in depth into the content of Newman’s liberal university education theory. For example, what is the relevance today of the knowledge that he considered important more than 170 years ago? How does a liberal education help students form virtues? Third, this article has not been able to discuss the relationship between the environment and individual flourishing. For example, what characteristics of a university are more likely to promote student flourishing? Similarly, to what extent can an individual promote the flourishing of the university community? Furthermore, for those born with disabilities, how can they flourish? For example, those born blind, or with physical  or intellectual disabilities—how can they flourish? In fact, existing literature has already discussed such questions ( Briggs & Reiss, 2021 ). Finally, this article has not discussed the question of “how.” For example, how might one implement a university education aimed at human flourishing? Internationally, some universities have written human flourishing into their mission statements, some have established centers for human flourishing research, some offer elective courses on human flourishing and happiness, and some have established liberal education programs, etc., but we do not know the effects of these programs; perhaps this is worth further research.

Posing New Questions

Regarding higher education and human flourishing, the author believes we should take a different approach from “Qian Xuesen’s Question.” We should ask a series of questions and hope that different people can explore the answers to them. For example, to what extent have I myself limited or promoted human flourishing? To what extent has our family promoted or limited the flourishing of our children? To what extent has our university promoted or limited human flourishing? To what extent has our country promoted or limited human flourishing?

Endnotes

1. There is currently no unified Chinese translation for “Human Flourishing.” At a conference on this topic held at Harvard University in the summer of 2023, participating Chinese scholars proposed the translation “人类繁盛” ( rénlèi fánshèng ). However, other translations such as “人类繁荣” ( human prosperity ), “人类幸福” ( human happiness ), “蓬勃生命” ( thriving life ), “欣盛” ( xīn shèng, joyous flourishing ), and “心盛” ( xīn shèng, flourishing of the heart / mind ) are also used in mainland China and Taiwan. This article uses “人类繁盛” ( human flourishing ), “人的繁盛” ( flourishing of persons ), or “人的生命繁盛” ( flourishing of human life ) interchangeably. Here, “人类繁盛” refers to the state of well-being at the group level, while “人的繁盛” is more inclined to refer to the beautiful state of thriving growth at the individual level.
2. Lin Jianhua, then president of Peking University, expressed in his 2017 undergraduate commencement speech that he did not agree that Peking University was cultivating “exquisite egoists.”
3. For example, American universities, including Harvard, have been criticized for their “excellence without a soul.” See [ USA ] Harry R. Lewis, Excellence Without a Soul: How a Great University Forgot Education, trans. Hou Dingkai ( Shanghai: East China Normal University Press, 2012 ). In addition to recent intense conflicts between American universities and the federal government, elite American universities have also faced various criticisms. For an example, see “How the Ivy League broke America” by David Brooks, The Atlantic, Nov 14, 2024.
4. Baylor University Launches Institute for Global Human Flourishing, April 30, 2025.
5. Human flourishing has multiple levels, such as individual flourishing, community flourishing, institutional flourishing, ethnic flourishing, and national flourishing. This article mainly discusses flourishing at the individual level, hence the use of “flourishing of persons” ( 人的繁盛 ).
6. Professor Yong Zhao of the University of Kansas and his collaborator ( Zhao, Y. & Zhong, R., 2025 ) criticized meritocracy and proposed redefining the purpose of education in the AI era with a “Human Interdependency Paradigm.” Their concept of human interdependency is different from the concept of human flourishing, although there are some overlaps.
7. Qian Yingyi, “How China Can Solve the ‘Qian Xuesen Question’,” Tsinghua Journal of Education, Vol. 39, No. 4, August 2018.
8. “Academician Pan Jianwei: The Crux of the ‘Qian Xuesen Question’ Lies in the Cultural Soil,” Science and Technology Daily, March 9, 2013.
9. Shi Yigong, “An Attempt to Answer the Qian Xuesen Question,” in Self-Breakthrough ( CITIC Press Group, 2023 ).
10. See Qian Liqun, “Searching for the Lost ‘University Spirit’—Speech at the Unofficial Commemoration of Peking University’s 110th Anniversary”; Qian Liqun, Rebuilding Our Home—My Reflections in Retirement ( Nanning: Guangxi Normal University Press, 2012 ); Qian Liqun, “What Kind of Top Talents Should University Education Cultivate?” in Peking University Reader, ed. Yu Shicun ( Sichuan People’s Publishing House, 2018 ); Xie Xiang, “Idealists Born for Reform Never Grow Old,” China Youth Daily, May 3, 2012 ( 3 ).
11. Depression requires strict clinical psychological screening. Most of these psychological studies use self-reported depression scales among university students, so the results may have certain discrepancies.
12. Regarding the phenomenon of suicide among university students, reliable data could theoretically be collected, but for well-known reasons, research in this area has become a blank space. The literature can only offer research on suicidal ideation among university students as a substitute.
13. Many important Judeo-Hebrew classics, such as the Pentateuch (Five Books of Moses) and the Psalms, were written long before the time of Aristotle ( 384-322 BCE ).
14. In this framework, financial stability is sometimes included as a dimension.
15. Guo Li, “The Qian Xuesen Question and the Destruction of Peking University’s Physics Department Elites,” Xin San Jie ( WeChat Public Account ), Guo Li Special Column, June 17, 2025.
16. Regarding grit ( Alan, et al., 2019 ); regarding patience ( Alan, S., & Ertac, S., 2018 ).
17. Books published by Nick Vujicic include Life Without Limits ( Hubei Education Press, 2015 ) and Unstoppable ( Tianjin Academy of Social Sciences Press, 2012 ).
18. The English for “信仰社区” is “Religious Communities.”
19. [ UK ] John Henry Newman, The Idea of a University, trans. Gao Shining, He Keyong, He Keren, He Guanghu ( Beijing: Peking University Press, 2016 ), Lecture 5, “Knowledge Its Own End,” Section 1, p. 91.
20. Ibid., Lecture 5, “Knowledge Its Own End,” Section 2, p. 94.
21. Ibid., Lecture 7, “Knowledge Viewed in Relation to Professional Skill,” Section 10, p. 151.
22. Ibid., p. 152.
23. Ibid., p. 152.
24. [ UK ] John Henry Newman, The Idea of a University, trans. Gao Shining, He Keyong, He Keren, He Guanghu ( Beijing: Peking University Press, 2016 ), p. 151.
25. Ibid., Lecture 7, “Knowledge Viewed in Relation to Professional Skill,” Section 10, p. 151.
26. Ibid., Lecture 7, “Knowledge Viewed in Relation to Professional Skill,” Section 10, p. 151.
27. See the article by Professor Paul Shrimpton, a Newman scholar at McGill University, Canada ( Shrimpton, 2022 ).
28. Ibid., Lecture 6, “Knowledge Viewed in Relation to Learning,” p. 127.
29. For example, we studied the impact of temperature during the Gaokao ( National College Entrance Examination ) on students’ scores ( Graff Zivin, et al., 2020 ); used randomized trials to study the impact of providing financial aid commitments, career planning, and information on rates of return to different educational stages on the academic performance and high school enrollment of rural junior high students (Yi, et al., 2014; Loyalka, et al., 2013); and studied the impact of providing university financial aid policy information to high school students in rural counties on their university application choices .
30. [ UK ] John Henry Newman, The Idea of a University, trans. Gao Shining, He Keyong, He Keren, He Guanghu ( Beijing: Peking University Press, 2016 ), Lecture 5, “Knowledge Its Own End,” Section 1, pp. 97-98.
31. “The true value of a liberal arts education,” Harvard Gazette, October 9, 2024.
32. Ibid., p. 5.

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This is the English version of an article published in Chinese in Logos Review (汉语学志). Read the Chinese original (中文原文) · All English articles