Logos Review · Issue 1 (Spring 2026) · Deliberation Column (Tuiqiao Zhuanlan)
Chen Junyuan
Graduate School, Central Academy of Fine Arts
Research Direction in Localized Design (under the School of Urban Design)
Contact: [email protected]
Abstract：Situated within complexity science and systems thinking, this article reconstructs the genealogy of “wicked problems” (Churchman, 1967; Rittel & Webber, 1973 ) and evaluates the competing Chinese renderings that have circulated since 2005 (“thorny,” “bad,” “complex,” and “resistant-to-solution” problems). We argue these translations overemphasize urgency, moral valence, lexical ambiguity, or technical impediments while missing defining attributes of wickedness: cross-stakeholder conflict, indeterminate goals, non-replicable solution paths, and the absence of stopping rules and decisive tests. We therefore propose wángù wèntí ( 顽痼问题 ) as a more faithful and generative rendering: 顽 signals untameability and resistance to governance; 痼 evokes chronic, deep-rooted conditions; and the semantic duality of 问题 ( problem/question ) foregrounds the simultaneity of understanding and response. Using Traditional Chinese Medicine’s holism as an analogy, we clarify system-level coupling and surface–system mismatches, and we restate the classic ten properties for diagnostic use. We conclude with implications for public governance, urban planning, and design education: prioritize interdisciplinary collaboration, experimental learning, and reflexive evaluation over one-shot solutions.
Keywords: wicked problems; 顽痼问题; complexity; systems thinking; public governance; translation studies
https://doi.org/10.64053/HVEN5823
Editor’s Note
Confucius said: Ming bu zheng ze yan bu shun. (If names are not correct, language will not be in accordance with the truth of things.)
Among living languages, Chinese is ancient. It is the most spoken language in the world, with the largest number of native speakers.
Today, the Chinese language is besieged from within and without, caught in a dilemma. Within China, it is constrained by strictly controlled freedom of speech; externally, it faces the global hegemony of English. It is surrounded on one side by rigid mental frameworks mass-produced by the education system, and on the other side by the vulgar, crude pontifications of self-media .
The Chinese Language Journal emphasizes language that is concise, elegant, precise, and truthful. For this reason, we have established the “Deliberation Column” (Tuiqiao Zhuanlan), in the spirit of Lu Yanrang’s “Musing on a Poem” .
Speak not of matters within the poem, for in the poem, there are no greater difficulties.
To settle on one word, I’ve twisted off several strands of my beard.
Seeking a perilous phrase would weary Heaven; a frantic search would dry up the sea.
Unlike the ease of prose, this is the author’s toil with particles of speech.
We also take guidance from Jia Dao’s “After Writing a Poem” .
Two lines took me three years to write; when I recite them, my tears flow.
If a kindred spirit does not appreciate them, I will return to my old mountain to sleep through the autumn.
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1. Introduction
From the late 1970s to the early 1990s, academia underwent a profound reflection on existing scientific paradigms. Researchers began to question the past way of thinking that dismantled complex phenomena into independent variables and then sought to control them through mechanical principles. In particular, a series of interdisciplinary methods represented by systems thinking and complexity theory gradually emerged. During this period, Karl Ludwig von Bertalanffy, hailed as the father of modern systems science, proposed the “General System Theory” in 1968, laying the theoretical foundation for later complexity studies (Bertalanffy, 1968). French philosopher Edgar Morin, beginning in 1977, successively published his six-volume work La Méthode, comprehensively elaborating on the profound significance of complexity thinking for social ethics and the organization of knowledge. In the United States, the newly established Santa Fe Institute (1984) further promoted the development of theories such as “Complex Adaptive Systems,” introducing concepts like non-linearity, self-organization, and emergence into mainstream scientific discourse.
It was against this backdrop of reflection on the “rational planning paradigm” that University of California, Berkeley professor Horst W. J. Rittel coined the term “wicked problems” to describe social predicaments that are difficult to define, lack standard solutions, and in which the problem and solution are inextricably entangled. The term was first introduced by philosopher C. West Churchman in his 1967 editorial in Management Science, where he noted it was a highly inspiring concept he had heard from Rittel, revealing the non-engineering nature of social problems (“Free for All,” 1967). In 1973, Rittel and urban planning scholar Melvin Webber co-authored the article “Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning,” officially publishing the term “Wicked Problem” and summarizing its “ten characteristics” (Rittel & Webber, 1973).[1] As problems that “cannot be divided or simplified,” wicked problems must be understood through a holistic perspective and the theoretical methods of complex systems.
2. Discussion of Existing Chinese Translations of the Term
Since the term “Wicked Problem” entered Chinese academia in 2005 ( Tang Lintao, 2005 ), it has been translated in several ways, including “坏问题” ( huài wèntí, bad problem ) ( Tang Lintao, 2005 ), “棘手问题” ( jíshǒu wèntí, thorny problem ) (Zhou & Yang, 2025; Wang & Song, 2023; Guo, 2017, 2020), “复杂问题” (fùzá wèntí, complex problem) (Guo et al., 2019), and “抗解问题” (kàngjiě wèntí, resistant-to-solution problem) (Zhang & Wang, 2024). However, none of these translations fully capture its connotation and characteristics. Through a horizontal comparison of these different translations, this article proposes a new translation—”顽痼问题” (wángù wèntí)—to more accurately reflect its core qualities.
Thorny (棘手): Urgent but Not Necessarily Complex
The most common translation for “Wicked Problem” is “棘手问题” (jíshǒu wèntí, thorny problem) (Zhou & Yang, 2025; Wang & Song, 2023; Guo, 2017, 2020), which is particularly prevalent in Chinese academia. It highlights the urgency of the problem and the need for a solution, but it overlooks the inherent complexity and the characteristic of being difficult to resolve fundamentally. In reality, “棘手” (thorny) emphasizes the operational level of problem-solving rather than the essence of it being a systemic predicament.
Bad (坏): A Value Judgment Lacking Description
Another more literal translation is “坏问题” (huài wèntí, bad problem) (Tang Lintao, 2005), which directly adopts the literal meaning of “wicked.” However, this translation can easily lead one to mistakenly believe that the problem carries a moral or value-based judgment, thus blurring the true meaning of “Wicked Problem” as a technical and practical term. While eye-catching, this translation fails to meet the needs of rigorous academic discussion.
Complex (复杂): A One-Sided Description
“复杂问题” (fùzá wèntí, complex problem) (Guo et al., 2019) is another common translation for “Wicked Problem” in Chinese. Although this translation attempts to present the multidimensional complexity of the problem, it becomes ambiguous due to the polysemy of the word “复杂” (complex) in the Chinese language . Specifically, “复杂” can refer to “complexity,” a quality that is difficult to solve with a single method, or it can refer to being “complicated,” which can usually be resolved through sorting and analysis. This ambiguity may weaken the reader’s understanding of the core characteristics of a “Wicked Problem.”
Resistant-to-Solution ( 抗解 ): Highlighting Only the Technical Dimension
“抗解问题” (kàngjiě wèntí, resistant-to-solution problem) can be literally understood as “a problem that resists being solved,” which to some extent corresponds to the difficulty of solving a “Wicked Problem” with standardized methods. However, this translation places more emphasis on the resistance to a “solution,” highlighting technical obstacles, and fails to fully encompass the practical features of a “Wicked Problem,” such as conflicts of interest among multiple parties, ambiguous goals, and the non-replicable nature of solution paths.
3. Why Translate it as “顽痼问题” (Wángù Wèntí)?
Based on the discussion of the existing Chinese translations above, this author advocates for translating “Wicked Problem” as “顽痼问题” (wángù wèntí). The following will elaborate on the three parts: “顽” (wán), “痼” (gù), and “问题” (wèntí).
3.1. “顽” (wán)
First, the character “顽” (wán), in the Chinese context, carries a sense of resistance. In the Shuowen Jiezi (the oldest comprehensive Chinese character dictionary, compiled during the Eastern Han dynasty ), the original meaning of “顽” is “foolish,” which later evolved into usages like “顽钝” (stubborn and dull), “顽劣” (unruly and wicked), “顽皮” (naughty), and “顽抗” (stubborn resistance), often used to describe behavior or a state that is incorrigible, disobedient, and difficult to restrain. This gives “顽” a flavor of “resisting governance,” implying a nature that is averse to control and reason, as well as a certain emotional rebellion.
In this sense, it creates an interesting semantic resonance with the word “wicked”—wicked is not simply “evil” or “wrong,” but refers to a problem state that is difficult to tame. This corresponds well with Rittel’s use of “tame problem” in his article to describe simple problems that can be solved (Rittel & Webber, 1973).
3.2. “痼” (gù)
Although “顽” can express the “difficult to tame” meaning of “wicked,” the phrase “顽问题” (wán wèntí) does not flow easily in Chinese. Therefore, for the translation “顽痼,” this author hopes to borrow the sound of “顽固” (wángù, stubborn) and the form of “痼疾” (gùjí, chronic disease). The inspiration for the change from “固” to “痼” comes from Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM).
Systems thinking emphasizes that problems are embedded in the complex systems in which they exist. To truly understand and respond to these problems, one must start from a holistic perspective, analyzing the multidimensional and intertwined relationships of the problem. Unlike traditional linear thinking, systems thinking can discover the indirect connections between seemingly unrelated elements, revealing how a change in any one variable affects the entire system. This mode of thinking shares many similarities with the holistic concept of TCM. TCM considers the human body as an organic whole, with all parts interdependent. When t reating a disease, a TCM practitioner does not simply target a single symptom but starts from the whole, adjusting the functions of the entire body to achieve balance. For example, TCM often stimulates acupoints on the feet to alleviate pain in various organs, a line of thought that coincides with the global view of systems thinking.
In Duan Yucai’s annotated edition of the Shuowen Jiezi, under the “sickness radical” (疒), he notes : “痼, a long-standing illness,” referring to a disease that has persisted over a long period of time and is difficult to cure, emphasizing the length of its course and its deep-rooted, intractable nature (Xu Shen et al., 1963). In classical literature, “痼” is often combined with “疾” (jí, illness) to form “痼疾” (gùjí), specifically referring to chronic diseases that have accumulated over a long period, recur frequently, and are difficult to cure completely.
In ancient medical texts, “痼疾” is often used to describe a pathological state that is long-latent and difficult to eliminate. The Nanjing (an ancient foundational text of TCM ) describes this confounding state in its eighteenth chapter : “If the pulse is knotted and hidden, there are no internal accumulations; if the pulse is floating and knotted, there is no external chronic disease. If there are accumulations but the pulse is not knotted and hidden, or if there is a chronic disease but the pulse is not floating and knotted, this is a case where the pulse does not correspond to the illness, and the illness does not correspond to the pulse. This is a fatal illness.” (Qin Yueren, 2009). According to TCM, this kind of contradiction between the pulse and the illness indicates that the body has lost its normal ability to respond, often presaging a critical and incurable condition, thus dubbed a “fatal illness.” It is akin to a mobile phone battery displaying a full charge when it is actually dead, or displaying a black screen and shutting down when it is fully charged. This state of “the outside not matching the inside” often means there is a major problem with the system. Here, “痼疾” not only emphasizes the time span of the disease but also reflects its complexity through the relationship between appearance and the system.
Therefore, translating “wicked” as “顽痼” (wángù) not only reflects the stubbornness and chronic, deep-rooted nature of the problem from a semantic perspective, but also aligns, in its mental framework, with the holistic understanding in TCM of a complex pathological state as a “long illness that has entered the collaterals, a system out of balance.”
3.3 The Dual Meaning of “问题” (wèntí)
In the Chinese context, the word “问题” (wèntí) naturally has a semantic duality: it can be translated as the English word “problem,” a difficult issue that needs to be solved, as well as “question,” an inquiry that needs to be understood and explored. However, in English, “problem” and “question” are usually strictly distinguished. “Problem” usually refers to an obstacle or a predicament, implying an expectation that it needs to be solved. Even for a complex predicament like a wicked problem, which cannot be completely solved, that air of expectation hangs heavy over the word. In contrast, the Chinese word “问题” is different; its semantics are more open, allowing people to call a phenomenon a “问题” even when they have not yet clearly understood it or defined its boundaries. This provides a gentler, more inquisitive perspective: when faced with a wicked-chronic problem, we do not necessarily have to rush to see it as a “predicament” to be solved urgently, but can first make inquiries of it. It has not yet been fully understood; perhaps it is simply that our knowledge and experience are not yet able to grasp it.
As Rittel and Webber (1973), the scholars who coined the term “wicked problem ,” pointed out, understanding the problem and developing a response happen concurrently. That is to say, the so-called “response” is itself a part of “understanding.” The semantic interchangeability of the Chinese word “问题” happens to provide the linguistic basis for this concurrency. It not only avoids the tendency to simply classify complex phenomena as “problems to be solved” but also encourages researchers to face the uniqueness of such problems with a more open attitude, thereby letting go of fixed models and preconceptions. From this perspective, “顽痼问题” (wángù wèntí) is not just a translation choice for “wicked problem,” but a deeper expression of this concept in the Chinese context.
4. Conclusion
Many problems in the real world do not have simple, clear answers. Any single solution on its own often brings about new social or environmental consequences. The existence of “顽痼问题” (wángù wèntí) reminds us that education should not be limited to memorization of fixed, standard answers, but should cultivate an ability to understand and respond to these problems. In the face of increasingly complex and diverse socio-ecological challenges, cultivating an interdisciplinary perspective and the ability to think systemically may be more crucial than mastering specific knowledge.
5. References
[Formatted as in the original]
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Footnote
[1] (1) Wicked problems have no definitive formulation.
(2) Wicked problems have no stopping rule.
(3) Solutions to wicked problems are not true-or-false, but good-or-bad.
(4) There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked problem.
(5) Every solution to a wicked problem is a “one-shot operation”; because there is no opportunity to learn by trial-and-error, every attempt counts significantly.
(6) Wicked problems do not have an enumerable (or an exhaustively describable) set of potential solutions, nor is there a well-described set of permissible operations that may be incorporated into the plan.
(7) Every wicked problem is essentially unique.
(8) Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of another problem.
(9) The existence of a discrepancy representing a wicked problem can be explained in numerous ways. The choice of explanation determines the nature of the problem’s resolution.
(10) The planner has no right to be wrong.
This is the English version of an article published in Chinese in Logos Review (汉语学志). Read the Chinese original (中文原文) · All English articles
